Estudo do processamento mnésico consciente e não consciente de palavras emocionais

Contenido principal del artículo

Tânia Prata
Graça Esgalhado

Resumen

De acordo com a literatura não existe um único sistema mnésico, mas múltiplos sistemas. Especificamente, na Memória a Longo Prazo podem-se encontrar dois tipos de memória, a designada memória explícita ou declarativa e a memória implícita ou não declarativa. Vários estímulos (palavras, faces/fotografias/imagens ou histórias narradas) de valência emocional (neutro/positivo/negativo) têm sido utilizadas para explicar a interdependência funcional entre a memória e a emoção, sendo que à medida que se avança na idade parece aumentar a relevância do material afectivo no processamento da informação (Carstensen and Mikels, 2005). Quando associado um estado emocional depressivo, vários autores sugerem que a informação afectivamente congruente com o estado de ânimo/humor dos indivíduos é melhor recordada que a informação afectivamente incongruente (Joormann and Gotlib, 2006; Leppänen, 2006). Neste estudo procuramos avaliar o processamento mnésico consciente e não consciente de palavras emocionais. Para tal, participaram 200 idosos com idades compreendidas entre os 60 e 88 anos e foram construídas duas provas específicas (Prova de reconhecimento de palavras e Prova de completamento de bigramas). Em ambas as provas houve um melhor reconhecimento e evocação das palavras-emoções do que das palavras-envelhecimento. Apesar das hipóteses de investigação terem sido infirmadas, o conteúdo emocional dos estímulos, de certo modo, facilitou na recuperação da informação anteriormente armazenada. As diferenças encontradas quando comparados o grupo dos deprimidos e o dos não deprimidos não são estatisticamente significativas (p maior do que 0.05), logo não se encontrou um efeito de congruência de humor. Por sua vez, quando utilizada a prova de memória implícita comprovou-se a existência do efeito facilitador priming, o que contribuiu para o alcance de melhores resultados nesta prova. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que quando está presente o efeito de facilitação priming e utilizado material afectivo consegue-se alcançar melhores resultados mnésicos quer em provas directas, quer indirectas.

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.

Detalles del artículo

Cómo citar
Prata, T., & Esgalhado, G. (2014). Estudo do processamento mnésico consciente e não consciente de palavras emocionais. Revista INFAD De Psicología. International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology., 1(1), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.17060/ijodaep.2014.n1.v1.393
Sección
Artículos
Biografía del autor/a

Tânia Prata, University of Beira Interior (Portugal)

PhD Candidate. University of Beira Interior (Portugal)

Citas

Abrisqueta-Gomez, J., Bueno, O., Oliveira, M. & Bertolucci, P. (2002). Recognition memory for emotional pictures in Alzheimer’s patients. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 105(1), 51-54. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11903109

Albuquerque, P. & Santos, J. (2000). Memória para acontecimentos emocionais: contributo da psicología cognitiva experimental. Revista Portuguesa de Psicossomática, 2(2), 21-32. Disponível em: http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/10121/1/Ref%2310.pdf

Albuquerque, P. (1998). Memória implícita e processamento: Do subliminar à formação de imagens. Dissertação de Doutoramento em Psicologia, Universidade do Minho. Braga, Portugal.

Atkinson, R. & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: a proposed system and its control processes. In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory (pp.89-195). Nueva York. Academic Press. Disponível em: http://apps.fischlerschool.nova.edu/toolbox/instructionalproducts/edd8124/fall11/1968-Atkinson_and_Shiffrin.pdf

Ballesteros. S. (1999). Memória Humana: Investigacon y teoria. Psicothema, 11(4), 705-723. Disponível em: http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/323.pdf

Ballesteros, S., Reales, J. & Manga, D. (1999). Memoria implícita y memoria explícita intramodal e intermodal: influencia de las modalidades elegidas y del tipo de estímulos. Psicothema, 11(4), 831-85. Disponível em: http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/331.pdf

Barrera, P., Arellano, J., Avilés, J. & Jiménez, S. (2012). Disociaciones entre pruebas de memoria implícita y explícita: El envejecimiento afecta a la compleción de raíces pero no a la generación de categorías. Psicothema, 24(3), 345-351. Disponível em: http://www.agingandcognitionlab. com/attachments/article/7/Toril%20et%20al.%20Psicothema%202012.pdf

Barreto, J., Leuschner, A., Santos, F. & Sobral, M., (2003). Escala de Depressão Geriátrica (GDS). In A. Mendonça, C. Garcia & M. Guerreiro (Coords.). Escalas e Testes na Demência - Grupo de Estudos de Envelhecimento Cerebral e Demência (pp.59-62). Lisboa: Colaboração da UCB Pharma (Novartis Farma – Produtos Farmacêuticos, S.A).

Barry, E., Naus, M. & Rehm, L. (2004). Depression and Implicit Memory: Understanding Mood Congruent Memory Bias. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(3), 387–414. Disponível em: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FB%3ACOTR.0000031808.00502.2e#page-1

Barry, E., Naus, M. & Rehm, L. (2006). Depression, implicit memory, and self: A revised memory model of emotion. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 719-745. Disponível em: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735805000929

Beato, M. & Fernández, A. (1995). Memoria explícita e implícita en pacientes depressivos: diferencias entre pruebas perceptivas y conceptuales. Cognitiva, 7(1), 51-66. Disponível em: http://www.academia.edu/1778155/Memoria_explicita_e_implicita_en_pacientes_depresivos_diferencias_entre_pruebas_perceptivas_y_conceptuales

Beato, M. & Fernández, A. (1998). Depresión y memoria: pruebas explícitas e implícitas. Escritos de Psicologia, 2, 35-51. Disponível em: http://www.escritosdepsicologia.es/descargas/revistas/num2/escritospsicologia2_informes3.pdf

Bisschop, M., Kriegsman, D., Derg, D., Beekman, A. & Van Tilburg, W. (2004). The longitudinal relation between chronic diseases and depression in older persons in community: the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 57(2), 187-194. Disponível em: http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/elsevier/the-longitudinal-relation-between-chronic-diseases-anddepression-in-nGlRoV1cg0

Blazer, D. (2003). Depression in late life: Review and commentary. The Journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences, 58(3), 249-65. Disponível em: http://focus.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=52836

Bourke, C., Douglas, K. & Porter, R. (2010). Processing of facial emotion expression in major depression: A review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(8), 681–696. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20636189

Buchanan, T., Denburg, N., Tranel, D. & Adolphs, R. (2001). Verbal and nonverbal emotional memory following unilateral amygdala damage. Learning and Memory, 8(6), 326-335. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC311388/

Cahill, L. & McGaugh, J. (1995). A novel demonstration of enhanced memory associated with emotional arousal. Consciousnous and Cognition, 4(4), 410-421. Doi: 10.1006/ccog.1995.1048

Cahill, L. & McGaugh, J. (1998). Mechanisms of emotional arousal and lasting declarative memory. Trends Neuroscience, 21(7), 294–299. Disponível em: http://www.utdallas.edu/~tres/ memory/emotional/mcgaugh.pdf

Calvo, M. & Esteves, F. (2005). Detection of emotional faces: low perceptual threshold and wide attentional span. Visual Cognition, 12(1), 13-27. Disponível em: http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FBRM.40.1.109.pdf

Carstensen, L. (1991). Selectivity theory: Social activity in life-span context. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 11, 195-217.

Carstensen, L., Isaacowitz, D. & Charles, S. (1999) Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American Psychologist, 54(3), 165-181. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10199217

Carstensen, L. & Mikels, J. (2005). At the intersection of emotion and cognition: Aging and the positivity effect. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 117-121. Disponível em: http://projectimplicit.net/bethany/Carstensen&Mikels(2005).pdf

Carstensen, L. & Turk-Charles, S. (1994). The salience of emotion across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 9(2), 259-264. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8054174

Castro, J., Pérez, R., Barrantes, N. & Capdevila, A. (1997). Estado de ánimo y sesgo en el recuerdo: papel del afecto. Psicothema, 9(2), 247-258. Disponível em: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=72709202

Chainay, H., Michael, G., Lionel-Landré, M. & Plasson, A. (2012). Emotional enhancement of immediate memory: Positive pictorial stimuli are better recognized than neutral or negative pictorial stimuli. Advances Cognitive Psychology, 8(3), 255-266. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22956991

Chi, I. & Chou, K. (2000). Depression predicts cognitive decline in Hong Kong Chinese older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 4(2), 148-157. Disponível em: http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/82005

Christianson, S. (1992). Remembering Emotional Events: Potential Mechanisms. In S. Christianson (Ed.). The Handbook of Emotion and Memory: Research and Theory (pp. 307-340). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.

Comblain, C., D’Argembeau, A., Linden, M. & Aldenhoff, L. (2004). The effect of ageing on the recollection of emotional and neutral pictures. Memory, 12(6), 673-684. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15724356

Craik, F., Moscovitch, M. & McDowd, J. (1994). Contributions of surface and conceptual information to performance on implicit and explicit memory tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(4), 864-875. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8064250

Doerksen, S. & Shimamura, A. (2001). Source memory enhancement for emotional words. Emotion, 1(1), 5-11. Disponível em: http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~shimlab/2001_DoerksenShim_Emotion.pdf

Dozois, D. & Dobson, K. (2001). Information processing and cognitive organization in unipolar depression: Specificity and comorbidity issues. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(2), 236-246. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11358018

Ellwart, T., Rinck, M. & Becker, E. (2003). Selective memory and memory deficits in depressed inpatients. Depression and Anxiety, 17(4), 197–206. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12820175

Fernandes, M., Ross, M., Wiegand, M. & Schryer, E. (2008). Are the memories of older adults positively biased? Psychology and Aging, 23(2), 297–306. Disponível em: http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~cogneuro/publications/Myra_Fernandes/Are_the_Memories_of_Older_Adults.pdf

Fernández-Rey, J. & Redondo, J. (2007). Recognition memory for pictorial stimuli: Biasing effects of stimulus emotionality. Psicothema, 19(3), 375-380. Disponível em: http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3373.pdf

Ferreira, P. (2000a). Criação da Versão Portuguesa do MOS SF-36. Parte I – Adaptação Cultural e Linguística. Acta Médica Portuguesa, 13(1-2), 55-66. Disponível em: http://www.actamedicaportuguesa.com/revista/index.php/amp/article/view/1760/1337

Ferreira, P. (2000b). Criação da Versão Portuguesa do MOS SF-36. Parte II – Testes de validação. Acta Médica Portuguesa, 13(3), 119-127. Disponível em: http://www.actamedicaportuguesa.com/revista/index.php/amp/article/view/1770/1347

Fleischman, D. & Gabrieli, J. (1998). Repetition priming in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease: a review of findings and theories. Psychology & Aging, 13(1), 88-119. Disponível em: http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&uid=1998-00168-009

Gallo, J., Rebok, G., Tennstedt, S., Wadley, V., Horgas, A. & ACTIVE Study Investigators. (2003). Linking depressive symptoms and functional disability in late life. Aging & Mental Health, 7(6), 469-480. Disponível em: http://www.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/profile.asp?guid=98bb03a9-4e3e-4f49-9b04-5b7785d9071d

García-Rodríguez, B., Fusari, A. & Ellgring, H. (2008). Procesamiento emocional de las expresiones faciales en el envejecimiento normal y patológico. Revista de Neurologia, 46(10), 1-9. Disponível em: http://www.uned-illesbalears.net/esp/emociones4.pdf

Gilboa, E. & Gotlib, I. (1997). Cognitive biases and affect persistence in previously dysphoric and never-dysphoric individuals. Cognition and Emotion, 11(5-6), 517-538. Disponível em: http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1997-42381-002

Gotlib, I., Jonides, J. & Joormann, J. (2011). Memory for affectively valenced stimuli in depression: Evidence from a novel matching task. Cognition and Emotion, 25(7), 1246-1254. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21432643

Grühn, D., Scheibe, S. & Baltes, P. (2007). Reduced negativity effect in older adults’ memory for emotional pictures: The heterogeneity-homogeneity list paradigm. Psychology and Aging , 22, 644-649. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17874962

Hamann, S. (2001). Cognitive and neural mechanisms of emotional memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(9), 394–400. Disponível em: http://perso.telecom-paristech.fr/~icc/TALC/Hamann%20%20Cognitive%20and%20neural%20mechanisms%20of%20emotional%20memory.pdf

Hill, A. & Dutton, F. (1989). Depression and selective attention to self-esteem threatening words. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(8), 915-917. Disponível em: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886989900263

Howard, D. & Howard, J. (1992). Adult age differences in the rate of learning serial patterns: Evidence from direct and indirect tests. Psychology and Aging, 7(2), 232-241. Disponível em: http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/howardd/JournalArticles.html

Isaacowitz, D., Lochenhoff, C., Lane, R., Wright, R., Sechrest, L., Riedel, R. & Costa, P. (2007). Age differences in recognition of emotion in lexical stimuli and facial expressions. Psychology and Aging, 22(1), 147–159. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17385991

Jenkins, W. & McDowall, J. (2001). Implicit memory and depression: An analysis of perceptual and conceptual processes. Cognition and emotion, 15(6), 803–812. Doi: 10.1080/02699930143000220

Joormann, J. & Gotlib, I. (2006). Is this happiness I see? Biases in the identification of emotional facial expressions in depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(4), 705–714. Dsiponível em: http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/jjoormann/publications/joormann_gotlib_2006.pdf

Katona, C. & Shankar, K. (2004). Depression in old age. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology. 14(4), 283-306. Doi: 10.1017/S0959259805001632

Kensinger, E. & Corkin, S. (2003). Memory enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral words? Memory & Cognition, 31(8), 1169–1180. Disponível em: http://web.mit.edu/bnl/pdf/Kensinger_Corkin_MC03.pdf

Kensinger, E. & Corkin, S. (2004). The effects of emotional content and aging on false memories. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 4(1), 1-9. Disponível em: http://web.mit.edu/bnl/pdf/Kensinger_Corkin_CABN04.pdf

Kensinger, E. & Schacter, D. (2005). Emotional content and reality-monitoring ability: FMRI evidence for the influence of encoding processes. Neuropsychologia, 43, 1429-1443. Disponível em: http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~ekensing/Kensinger_Neurop05.pdf

Kensinger, E. (2008). Age differences in memory for arousing and nonarousing emotional words. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 63B(1), 13-18. Disponível em: https://www2.bc.edu/~kensinel/Kensinger_JG08.pdf

Kensinger, E., Growdon, J., Brierley, B., Medford, N. & Corkin, S. (2002). Effects of Normal Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease on Emotional Memory. Emotion, 2(2), 118-134. Disponível em: https://www2.bc.edu/~kensinel/Kensinger_Emo02.pdf

Kwon, Y., Scheibe, S., Samanez-Larkin, G., Tsai, J. & Carstensen, L. (2009). Replicating the positivity effect in picture memory in Koreans: Evidence for cross-cultural generalizability. Psychology and Aging, 24, 748-754. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19739932

LaBar, K. & Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 54-64. Disponível em: http://tarantella.aas.duke.edu/files/sites/labar/pub/0501534845.pdf

Lane, R., Reiman, G., Ahern, G., Schwartz, G. & Davidson, R. (1998). Neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness and disgust. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(7), 926-933. Disponível em: http://psychiatryonline.org/data/Journals/AJP/3678/926.pdf

Langeslag S. J. E., & Van Strien, J. W. (2009). Aging and emotional memory: The co-occurrence of neurophysiological and behavioral positivity effects. Emotion, 9, 369-377. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19485614

León, F., Martínez, J., Hernández, L., Cruz, J., Meilán, J., Ramos, J. & Sáez, E. (2010). Emoción y memoria de reconocimiento: la discrominación de la información negativa como um proceso adaptativo. Psicothema, 22(4), 765-771. Disponível em: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=72715515036

Leppänen, J. (2006). Emotional information processing in mood disorders: a review of behavioural and neuroimaging findings. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19(1), 34-39. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16612176

Löckenhoff, C. & Carstensen, L. (2007). Aging, emotion, and health-related decision-strategies: Motivational manipulations can reduce age differences. Psychology and Aging, 22(1), 134-146. Doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.134

Maratos, E., Allen, K. & Rugg, M. (2000). Recognition memory for emotionally negative and neutral words. An ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 38(11), 1452-1465. Disponível em: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10906371?dopt

Mather, M. & Carstensen, L. (2005). Aging and motivated cognition: The positivity effect in attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(10), 496-502. Disponível em: http://www.usc.edu/projects/matherlab/pdfs/MatherCarstensen2005.pdf

Matt, G., Vázquez, C. & Campbell, K. (1992). Mood congruent recall of affectively toned stimuli: A meta-analityc review. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 227-255. Disponível em: http://pendientedemigracion.ucm.es/info/psisalud/carmelo/PUBLICACIONES_pdf/1992-Mood%20congruent%20recall.pdf

Meilán, J., Carro, J., Guerrero, C., Carpi, A., Gómez, C. & Palmero, F. (2012). El efecto de memoria congruente con el estado afectivo: reconocimiento diferencial de palabras de tristeza y alegría. Anales de psicologia, 28(1), 266-273. Disponível em: http://repositori.uji.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10234/62255/52215.pdf?sequence=1

Morris, R. (2007). Memory: Distinctions and dilemmas. n H. Roediger III, Y, Dudai & S. Fritzpatrick (Eds.), Science of memory: concepts (pp.356-369). New York: Osford University Press.

Moscovitch, M. (2007). Memory: why the engram is elusive. In H. Roediger III, Y, Dudai & S. Fritzpatrick (Eds.), Science of memory: concepts (pp.265-273). New York: Osford University Press.

Ochsner, K. (2000). Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. Journal Experimental Psychology: General, 129(2), 242-61. Disponível em: http://psych.stanford.edu/~ochsner/pdf/Ochsner_R-K_Emotion.pdf

Osório, A., Pouthas, V., Fay, S. & Ballesteros, S. (2010). Ageing affects brain activity in highly educated older adults: An ERP study using a word-stem priming task. Cortex, 46, 522-534. Disponível em: http://cerca.labo.univ-poitiers.fr/IMG/pdf_Cor10-FayColl-.pdf

Redondo, J. & Fernández-Rey, J. (2010). Reconocimiento de fotografías de contenido emocional: Efectos de la valencia cuando se controla el arousal. Psicológica, 31(1), 65-86. Disponível em: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=16912881004

Reisberg, D. & Heuer, F. (2004). Remembering emotional events. In D. Reisberg & P. Hertel (Eds.). Memory and emotion (pp. 3-41). Nueva York: Oxford University Press.

Ruiz-Caballero, J. & Arribas, C. (2001). Depresión y memoria: ¿Es la información congruente con el estado de ánimo más accesible? Psicothema, 13(2), 193-196. Disponível em: http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/435.pdf

Ruíz-Vargas, J. (1993). Disociaciones entre pruebas implícitas y explícitas de memoria: significado e implicaciones teóricas. Estudios de Psicologia, 49, 71-106 Disponível em: http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=66110

Ruiz-Vargas, J. (2002). Memoria y olvido: Perspectivas evolucionista, cognitiva y neurocognitiva. Madrid: Trotta.

Sanz, J. (1996). Memory biases in social anxiety and depression. Cognition and Emotion, 10(1), 87-105. Disponível em: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/026999396380402#preview

Schacter, D. (2007). Memory: Deluneating the core. In H. Roediger III, Y. Dudai & S. Fritzpatrick (Eds.). Science of memory: concepts (pp.23-28). New York: Osford University Press.

Schacter, D., Chiu, C. & Ochsner, K. (1993) Implicit memory: A selective review. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 16, 159–82. Disponível em: http://dept.psych.columbia.edu/~kochsner/pdf/Schacter_Implicit_Mem_Rev.pdf

Simón, T., Gallego-Largo, T. & Suengas, A. (2009). Memoria y envejecimiento: recuerdo, reconocimiento y sesgo positivo. Psicothema, 21(3), 409-415. Disponível em: http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3646.pdf

Squire, L. (1986). Mechanisms of memory. Science 232 (4758),1612-1619. Disponível em: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/232/4758/1612.abstract

Squire, L., Knowlton, B. & Musen, G. (1993). The structure and organization of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 453-495. Disponível em: http://www.neuro.iastate.edu/uploads/squireetal_annrevphsyc_93.pdf

Surguladze, S. Young, A., Senior, C., Brebon, G., Travis, M. & Phillips, M. (2004). Recognition accuracy and response bias to happy and sad facial expressions in patients with major depression. Neuropsychology, 18(2),212–218. Disponível em: http://psychmed.iop.kcl.ac.uk/neuroscience-and-emotion/downloads/44.pdf

Thomas, R. & Hasher, L. (2006). The influence of emotional valence on age differences in early processing and memory. Psychology and Aging, 21(4), 821-825. Disponível em: http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/hasher/Submitted%20and%20In%20Press/2006%20(Thomas,%20Hasher)%20The%20Influence%20of%20Emotional%20Valence.pdf

Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40(4), 385-398. Disponível em: http://www.distancelearningcentre.com/access/materials/cog_psych/memory_unit4/How_many_memory_systems_are_there.pdf

Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 1-25. Disponível em: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114

Vasconcelos, M. & Albuquerque, P. (2006). Dissociação entre tarefas de memória: Evidência para uma distinção entre as memórias implícita e explícita. Análise Psicológica, 4(24), 519-532. Disponível em: http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/aps/v24n4/v24n4a07.pdf

Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M. & Stuss, D. (1996). Explicit and implicit memory in the elderly: Evidence for double dissociation involving medial temporal- and frontal-lobe functions. Neuropsychology,10(1), 57-65. Disponível em: http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1996-02174-006